Thanks to science, we have data that fills in the blanks. Well-publicized studies at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Mass., in 2014 and 2016 have given us clarity and real data on the physics of sneezing. The MIT researchers’ discoveries addressed not only a sneeze’s potential distance, but how fast a sneeze travels.

How Far Does a Sneeze Travel?

The MIT research team, led by Dr. Lydia Bourouiba, set out in its 2014 study to measure how far a sneeze can travel. Dr. Bourouiba is an MIT professor and head of a department called Fluid Dynamics of Disease Transmission Laboratory. She and her colleagues engaged 100 heathy volunteers and recorded them as they sneezed. When researchers required a sneeze, a simple nose tickle did the trick. High-tech cameras captured the action—the speed and force of the mucus, droplets, and snot expelled from the subjects—in minute detail.

The shocking answer uncovered by MIT: Sneezes can travel up to 200 feet. That’s about two-thirds the length of a football field. Imagine a quarterback in football airing out a bomb; strong-armed passers like Aaron Rodgers can heave a ball 67 yards in the air. That visual helps answer the question “How far does a sneeze travel?”

So how does it happen that a sneeze can travel so far?

Just like the data we’re typing into our computer can be “carried off” to that the great storage universe called “the Cloud,” we send our germs out in a cloud every time we sneeze. That’s right: When we sneeze (and also when we cough), we release gas clouds that preserve potentially infectious droplets and carry them far greater distances that previously thought.

These stop-action images from MIT’s sneeze study give you an idea of the force of a “multiphase turbulent buoyant cloud”—the droplet-carrying vehicle we expel during a sneeze.

John Bush, MIT professor of applied mathematics, co-authored the paper reporting on the study’s results. “When you cough or sneeze,” he wrote, “you see the droplets, or feel them if someone sneezes on you. But you don’t see the cloud—the invisible gas phase. The influence of this gas cloud is to extend the range of the individual droplets, particularly the small ones.”

Without the gas cloud, these smaller droplets would have a better chance of falling harmlessly on the ground within a few feet of the sneezer. Unfortunately, the gas cloud allows them to become airborne pathogens that travel anywhere from five to 200 times the distance. (We can’t help but think of them as hot air balloons carrying “travelers” that just happen to be germs.)

A Sneeze, Captured on Camera

In conjunction with sneezing volunteers, MIT researchers used technology to capture sneeze results. According to an MIT News report, “The researchers used high-speed imaging of coughs and sneezes, as well as laboratory simulations and mathematical modeling, to produce a new analysis of coughs and sneezes from a fluid-mechanics perspective. Their conclusions upend some prior thinking on the subject. For instance, researchers had previously assumed that larger mucus droplets fly farther than smaller ones, because they have more momentum, classically defined as mass times velocity.”

Instead, the small droplets, airlifted by our gas clouds, can be carried greater distances than even than the larger drops.

The researchers, in their paper, even have a name for those sneezed-out gas bubbles: “multiphase turbulent buoyant clouds.” So the next time someone sneezes without covering his nose, it’s okay to politely request that he keep his multiphase turbulent buoyant cloud to himself.

Upon publication of the first study’s results, newspaper and website headline writers glommed onto the “200-foot sneeze” angle. But keep in mind that not all sneeze debris travels that far. “The largest droplets rapidly settle within [about 3 to 6 feet] away from the person,” Dr. Bourouiba wrote.

Plus, there are “smaller and evaporating droplets that become trapped in a turbulent puff cloud,” Dr. Bourouiba added, and they remain suspended. Over the course of seconds to a few minutes, these smaller droplets “can travel the dimensions of a room and land up to [19 to 26 feet] away,” she noted.

When you feel a sneeze coming on, do a favor for those around you and let it escape into the crook of your arm.

Do Germs Travel by Sneeze?

Back to our original question: When we cross paths with a sneezing person, does it matter? Yes, and the sneezer doesn’t need to be a few feet away to spread his germs. The droplets can infect us even if the sneeze doesn’t land directly into our eyes or nose. MIT’s researchers point out that if the sneezer is all the way across a room, you’re still at risk.

Not to worry your inner germophobe, but… that “multiphase turbulent buoyant cloud” that’s carrying sneeze droplets can reach you from an entirely different room if common vents connect the rooms.

“The findings show that these clouds, particularly under usual conditions of temperature and buoyancy, have a tendency to go higher in the room and get sucked into the ventilation system,” according to co-author Bush. “I could be in this end of the building, and [yet] somebody could be in contact with my pathogens through from the ventilation system without me actually meeting that person.”

How Fast Does a Sneeze Travel?

Data collected by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology research team not only tells us how far a sneeze can travel, but it answers this question: “How fast does a sneeze travel?”

Amazingly, a sneeze can travel up to 100 m.p.h. As John Bush, MIT professor of applied mathematics, wrote, “Think of the cloud as being turbulent—that is to say, a very disordered, vigorous motion. If the characteristic speed in that cloud is larger than its settling speed, then it will be dominated more by that internal cloud motion than by its settling speed—meaning the smaller droplets go much further than the large drops.”

In the company of a sneezer, we instinctively turn away from the splatter—or we may slip outside to breathe in some fresh air. And, of course, we may be tempted to wash our hands—a good practice anyway to avoid the spread of germs. But because it’s difficult or near-impossible to see the droplet-bearing gas clouds produced by a sneeze, there may not be much you can do, other than to pray the droplets don’t get into your eyes, nose, or mouth—and, of course, to offer a quick “bless you” or “gesundheit.”

RECOMMENDED FOR YOU

• Cold vs. Allergies: What’s the Difference?
• Getting Sick After Flying? How to Prevent That Cold or Nasty Sinus Infection
• Antihistamines: Uses, Types, and Side Effects of a Popular Allergy Medication
• Where Germs Hide: Our “Filthy 5” Everyday Items May Shock You!

Originally published in 2018, this post is regularly updated.

The post How Far Does a Sneeze Travel? appeared first on University Health News.

It would help to understand what nightmares are. Unfortunately, there’s more mystery than quantifiable fact surrounding nightmares. For now, here’s what we do know about these “stories” that play out in our minds while we sleep: They’re “lengthy, elaborate dreams with imagery that evokes fear, anxiety, or sadness,” as Psychology Today puts it. “The dreamer may wake up to avoid the perceived danger.”

Nightmares are unique to each of us, they’re personal, and they’re so fleeting that we often don’t remember much about them. And there are any number of factors that trigger them. What causes nightmares for you, however, may not have the slightest effect on anyone else.

What Causes Nightmares

So what causes nightmares? Here are seven common triggers:

1. Anxiety and stress: Worried about work? Stressing about a relationship? Such common issues can manifest themselves in sleep-depriving nightmares.
2. Depression: Mood issues related to such life changes as divorce or break-up, death of a loved one, financial woes, and career concerns can lead to nightmares in some of us.
3. Eating before bedtime. That late snack increases metabolism, causing the brain to become more active, leading to more dream time. And a study published by International Journal of Psychophysiology reported that spicy food and junk food (candy bars, ice cream, and other sugary treats) trigger more brainwaves. A study published in The Journal of The Mind and Body showed that seven of 10 participants had nightmares after eating junk food just before bedtime.
4. Lack of sleep: Overtired from sleeplessness? That very condition could cause even more sleeplessness in the form of disturbing nightmares—a vicious circle.
5. Sleep disorders: Restless leg syndrome, twitching while sleeping, sleep apnea—all of these types of conditions can bring on nightmares.
6. Medications: Some prescriptions (antidepressants, for example) affect brain chemicals, so nightmares you’ve been having could be related to medications you’re on.
7. Withdrawal: Giving up medications (including sleeping pills and antidepressants) or substances (including alcohol) also can result in nightmares.

Haunted by Nightmares?

The Academy of Sleep Medicine describes nightmares as “recurrent episodes of awakening from sleep with recall of intensely disturbing dream mentation, usually involving fear or anxiety, but also anger, sadness, disgust, and other dysphoric emotions.”

If you’re worried that nightmares are a warning of some sort, relax. Don’t take them literally. In nightmares, we feel like we have no control over the imaginary scenes that are playing out, but they’re just that: imaginary. However, they do often reflect fears or obsessions.

According to Dreams.co.uk, the 10 most common bad dream themes are:

1. Our teeth falling out
2. Being chased
3. Being unable to find a toilet
4. Being naked in public
5. Being unprepared for an exam
6. Flying
7. Falling
8. Being in an out-of-control vehicle
9. Finding an unused room
10. Being late

Are Nightmares Bad for Our Health? The Surprising Answer

If nightmares are recurrent enough, they can develop into what’s known as “nightmare disorder.” The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Disorders defines nightmare disorder as “repeated awakenings with recollection of terrifying dreams, usually involving threats to survival, safety, or physical integrity.”

Fortunately, nightmare disorder is rare. However, there’s no doubt that recurring nightmares also may cause fatigue. We may have difficulty falling back asleep after nightmares because of their disturbing nature. In a classic domino effect, the fatigue can carry over into our work performance and/or interfere with family or social life.

But there’s a flip side: Research also shows that bad dreams actually may be helpful in getting us to move beyond a traumatic event. Nightmares can serve as an emotional release from anxiety that may be weighing on our minds; in fact, they’re normal reactions to stress we’ve been experiencing. “We think nightmares are so common that they have some purpose to process stressors,” Anne Germain, director of the Sleep and Chronobiology Center at the University of Pittsburgh, told CNN in 2017.

Being haunted even by traumatic events may be helpful, research shows, and experts think they could actually be beneficial. “Nightmares in the first few weeks after a traumatic event have not been associated with health problems,” reported CNN’s Carinna Storrs.

One study illustrates that more than 20 percent of women who were victims of sexual or physical assault were experiencing nightmares about the event three months later. Another study shows that survivors of serious car and motorcycle accidents also were having nightmares months later.

This article was originally published in 2018. It is regularly updated. 

The post What Causes Nightmares? 7 Common Triggers appeared first on University Health News.

We know, of course, that a complete diet should include healthy fats, and MCT oil is a worthy source. It’s found in high concentrations in coconuts (around 65 percent of the fatty acids in coconut oil are MCTs) along with these foods:

• Palm kernel oil
• Milk
• Butter
• Cheese
• Yogurt

MCT Oil: Benefits Can Include Better Metabolism

In Western diets, we’re encouraged to go easy on saturated fats, but research has shown that they can be important building blocks for cell membranes while providing a worthy source of energy.

“Saturated fats are quite heterogeneous in nature and potentially also in their health effects,” according to doctors who conducted a study reported in The Journal of the American College of Nutrition.

“In fact, based on their structure, saturated fats can be sub-classified into short-chain, medium-chain, and long-chain fats whereas mono- and polyunsaturated fats are all long-chain fats,” the doctors’ statement continued. “Short-chain fatty acids are considered to have six or fewer carbon atoms, medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) have eight to 10 carbons, and long-chain fatty acids (LCFA) generally have 12 or more carbon chains.”

Studies have shown that MCT oils can help us lose or manage our weight, partly because they’re lower in calories than other fats. Plus, medium-chain fats digest easily and travel directly to our liver; once there, they facilitate thermogenesis, the process that boosts our metabolism and ability to burn fat.

This succinct explanation, as offered at NutritionReview.org, describes the benefits of limiting LCTs: “MCTs provide about 10 percent fewer calories than LCTs—8.3 calories per gram for MCTs vs. 9 calories per gram for LCTs. But this is just one of the unique advantages of MCTs. More important, reduced chain length also means that MCTs are more rapidly absorbed by the body and more quickly metabolized (burned) as fuel. The result of this accelerated metabolic conversion is that instead of being stored as fat, the calories contained in MCTs are very efficiently converted into fuel for immediate use by organs and muscles.”

MCT Oil Benefits Also Can Include Cognitive and Heart Health

MCT oil benefits also extend to brain health. The Alzheimer’s Drug Discovery Foundation (ADDF) notes that our bodies rapidly convert MCTs “into ketones, which can be used as an energy source by the brain. No studies have yet found that MCTs can prevent dementia, but some evidence suggest that patients with dementia might find short-term benefits from using MCTs.”

More studies, however, are needed in the area of MCTs and cognitive health. As the ADDF reports, “Some preclinical laboratory studies suggest that MCTs may improve some measures of cognition and prevent amyloid plaque formation in animals, but these results have not been confirmed in humans.”

As for heart health, certain studies have pointed to “a negative impact of MCT oil consumption on cardiovascular risk,” according to the National Institutes of Health. But a randomized, controlled study in 2011 found otherwise. “Our results,” wrote the authors, “suggest that MCT oil can be incorporated into a weight-loss program without fear of adversely affecting metabolic risk factors.”

Like anything, moderation is important; heavy doses of MCT oil could negate its benefits and even increase the potential risk for heart disease.

Still More MCT Oil Benefits: Digestive and Gastrointestinal Health

MCTs also may be effective in dealing with gastrointestinal issues. An article in Practical Gastroenterology in 2017 reports, “Medium-chain triglycerides [MCTs] comprise a glycerol molecule attached to 3 fatty acid chains ranging between 6 to 12 carbons in length. Unlike most other lipid molecules that require a complex process of digestion, MCTs are more easily absorbed into the bloodstream from the gastrointestinal tract. These features of MCTs confer unique benefits in the management of gastrointestinal disorders.

“As such,” the article continues, “MCTs have historically been used to treat steatorrhea resulting from malabsorptive disorders, such as pancreatic insufficiency, prior gastrectomy, and small bowel resection. [MCTs also] have been investigated for their potential to reduce obesity, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders.”

Originally published in 2017, this post is regularly updated. 

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Here, we consider a host of healthy snacks. On-the-go folks should keep these options in mind when rushing in and out of a convenience store for mid-day sustenance.

Our source is the American Heart Association (AHA), so all recommendations for healthy snacks on the go are presented with cardiovascular well-being in mind. And why not? Recently issued statistics compiled by the AHA, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and other government sources include these stark trends:

• In the U.S., the prevalence of obesity among adults (estimated using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, or NHANES) increased from 1999-2000 through 2013-2014 from 30.5 percent to 37.7 percent
• Heart disease (including coronary heart disease, hypertension, and stroke) remains the No. 1 cause of death in the U.S.
• Coronary heart disease accounts for 1 in 7 deaths in the U.S., killing more than 366,800 people a year.
• Nearly 1 of every 3 American adults has high levels of LDL cholesterol (the “bad” kind), and about 18.7 percent of American adults have low levels of HDL cholesterol (the “good” kind).

Healthy Dining in Convenience Stores?*

People turn to convenience stores to grab on-the-go food while traveling or as the only alternative when fresh food options like grocery stores are scarce.

But can you find healthy options there? Nutritionists say it’s possible—even when faced with aisles of candy bars, salty snacks, and cheesy puffs.

It just takes a little extra time and effort.

“Whether we are traveling or find ourselves at the convenience store getting gas or grabbing food on our way to work, lots of meals are occurring outside the home, and we have to be careful and vigilant of how we are eating,” said Dr. Karen Aspry, director of the Lipid Clinic and Cardiovascular Disease Prevention Program at Lifespan health system in Rhode Island. “The bottom line is that as Americans and consumers, we should recognize that poor diets are believed to be one of the top causes of premature death in the population.”

For many, access to healthy food is a critical issue. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, about 39.4 million Americans live more than a mile away from a grocery store in urban areas and 10 miles away in rural areas. Of that group, the USDA estimates about 19 million people have “limited access” to grocery stores because of income and transportation. The agency has mapped thousands of communities across the country where residents live in such low-income, low-access areas.

Health researchers often have called those areas food deserts. But a recent study found it’s not so much the “desert” itself as economics in general that is linked to poor heart health. The report, in Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes, examined food deserts in metro Atlanta and found people there have higher rates of cardiovascular risk factors. But the researchers said the associations were mostly due to low income rather than proximity to a grocery store.

Another recent study by researchers from New York University, Stanford University, and the University of Chicago found that food-buying and eating habits might be less about geography and more about differences in income, education, and nutritional knowledge.

Whatever the reason for turning to convenience stores for food, nutritionists say there are a few ways to make sure the choices are good ones:

• Take a walk around the store. Don’t choose impulsively.
• Read labels. The yogurt might look healthy, but it also might be packed with sugar.
• Avoid the sugary drinks and the lure of the soda fountain.
• Choose water instead.

“The healthy things are sort of hidden and the junky things might be up front and glaring at you, so don’t be afraid to ask questions,” said Ilyse Schapiro, a registered dietitian with nutrition counseling practices in New York and Connecticut. “People are more health conscious. . . and places like these are trying to offer more healthy options to help customers as they are on the road.”

Hard-boiled eggs, small bags of chopped carrots, or celery with hummus and a whole apple, orange, or banana are good options.

“Choose options that are as nutrient-dense as possible, but low in salt, sugar, saturated fats, and calories,” said Linda Van Horn, a professor in the Department of Preventive Medicine and associate dean in the Feinberg School of Medicine at Northwestern University.

Nutrient-rich foods have vitamins, minerals, protein, fiber-rich whole grains, and other good-for-you ingredients. They are typically lower in calories and can help you control weight, cholesterol, and blood pressure levels.

Overall, experts recommend eating a diet based on a variety of fruits and vegetables; whole grains; low-fat dairy products; skinless poultry, fish; nuts and legumes; and non-tropical vegetable oils.

Another practical tip from Van Horn: Avoid impulsive choices while bored or tired.

“Think it through and choose a food that will help you get past the craving without resenting later what you chose.”

*Courtesy of the American Heart Association

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Orthostatic hypotension happens when blood pools in your legs upon standing. The result—within three minutes of rising from a resting position—can be a drop of more than 20mmHg in systolic blood pressure or 10 mmHg in diastolic pressure.

Normally, your heart pumps faster and your blood vessels constrict to offset this decrease. If these processes happen too slowly or not at all, the result is orthostatic hypotension. Symptoms typically involve feeling faint or dizzy. (See also our post Dizziness While Standing Up: What Causes It?) Low blood pressure after a meal, caused by blood collecting in the gastrointestinal tract, also can cause lightheadedness.

What Causes Orthostatic Hypotension?

Orthostatic hypotension is most common in older adults, especially those with high blood pressure and those who take blood pressure medications. It also may be a result of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, nervous system problems, Parkinson’s disease, dehydration, fatigue, nutritional disorders, heat exposure, alcoholism, or simply advanced age.

Should I See a Doctor If I Experience Orthostatic Hypotension?

Tell your doctor about any dizziness or lightheadedness you experience, as well as when these episodes occur. Your physician should rule out other causes of dizziness, such as an inner-ear disorder.

When consulting with your doctor, bring a list of your medications and review it with him or her to make sure none of them is causing your symptoms.

Is There a Link Between Orthostatic Hypertension and Dementia?

Orthostatic hypotension is known to cause not only dizziness but head rushes and sometimes a more rapid heartbeat. However, it also may be tied to a greater risk for dementia, as reported in Mind Mood & Memory. The backing research comes from a large Dutch study published online in the journal PLoS Medicine (Oct. 11, 2016).

Earlier research suggests that the reduction in blood flow to the brain that accompanies orthostatic hypotension can contribute to memory problems and declines in brain function in older individuals. After analyzing 24 years of data on more than 6,204 older participants in the long-term study, researchers found a 15 percent relative increase in the incidence of all types of dementia in participants who had experienced orthostatic hypotension.

Although the cause of the association is not clear, the researchers suggested that the link between orthostatic hypotension and increased dementia risk may be related to the negative effects of oxygen deprivation on brain tissue. Proper control of blood pressure is recommended to help protect the brain from this and other potentially negative effects.

Contributing: Jim Black and Jay Roland

This article was originally published in 2018. It is regularly updated. 

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First, what is frostbite? By definition, frostbite is the “superficial or deep freezing of the tissues of some part of the body,” as Merriam-Webster describes. At highest risk, of course, are our most exposed areas (nose, ears, cheeks, chin) and our inadequately protected areas (particularly our hands, fingers, feet, and toes).

Wear layers of clothing (preferably waterproof on the outside), cover your face and ears, protect your hands with insulated gloves or mittens, and make sure your footwear is appropriate, with adequate insulation from socks. (See “How to Avoid Frostbite” sidebar below.)

Treating Frostbite: Fast Action Required

If you have symptoms of frostbite, seek quick medical care. If not available, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention advises these six steps:

1. Get into a warm room as soon as possible.
2. If possible, do not walk on frostbitten feet or toes. Walking increases the damage.
3. Put the affected area in warm—not hot—water.
4. You can also warm the affected area using body heat. For example, use your armpit to warm frostbitten fingers.
5. Don’t rub the frostbitten area with snow or massage it at all. This can cause more damage.
6. Don’t use a heating pad, heat lamp, or the heat of a hair dryer, stove, fireplace, or radiator for warming. Since frostbite makes an area numb, you could burn it.

The website SkinSight.com recommends, as first aid treatment for cases of mild frostbite, moving to a warmer place, removing clothing from the affected area, and rewarming the affected area “until sensation in the skin has returned and the skin is soft (for at least 30 minutes). Rewarming of frostbitten skin is typically accompanied by pain, swelling, and color change.”

Frostbite Symptoms and How They Progress

Frostbite symptoms may begin with redness or pain to the affected area, plus a “prickling” feeling. This first stage is called “frostnip.” The CDC advises you, at the onset of such signs, to get out of the cold or to protect any exposed skin—frostbite may be beginning. (See “How to Avoid Frostbite” sidebar.)

The condition can quickly progress to “superficial” frostbite, where the redness in the affected area begins turning to a white or grayish-yellow color. At this point, ice crystals may form in your tissue and you may feel a warmess or even stinging feeling. Your skin then may begin feeling unusually firm or waxy and numb. In addition, blisters can begin appearing on frostbitten areas, especially on the hands or limbs.

If it progresses to the “severe frostbite” stage, all layers of the skin, including deep tissue, become affected. At this point, you’ll feel more numbness and a loss of sensation of cold or pain, and stiffening joints or muscles. After rewarming the area (as described in the “Treating Frostbite” section above), larger blisters may form and the affected area will turn hard and become black in color, an indication that tissue has died.

The National Weather Service (NWS) categorizes the progression of frostbite like this:

• First degree: The skin’s surface is frozen, known as frostnip.
• Second degree: The skin may freeze and harden; blisters form in a day or two.
• Third degree: Muscles, tendons, nerves and blood vessels freeze.
• Fourth degree: Pain lasts for more than a few hours and skin may turn dark blue or black; gangrene is a real threat and will require amputation of extremities if it occurs.

Medical News Today adds detail to those categories in the post linked here. Notably: “Third- and fourth-degree frostbite is when it penetrates deeper, causing deep tissue injury. Muscles, blood vessels, nerves, and tendons freeze. The skin feels smooth and waxy. The patient may lose the use of an extremity—for example a foot or a hand. In some cases, this is permanent.”

Frostbite Risk Factors

A scene like this may be beautiful, but… if you’re out there enjoying it, dress for the occasion. Wear layers of clothing (preferably waterproof on the outside), cover your face and ears, protect your hands with insulated gloves or mittens, and make sure your footwear is appropriate, with adequate insulation from socks.

Does lifestyle have an impact on our risk of frostbite? We may not think so, but it can. A Vogue.com piece written by an author who experienced frostbite, Kate Branch, offers this advice: “If you drink alcohol, stop. If you smoke, stop. ‘It constricts the blood vessels,’ says Dr. Chris Hogrefe, sports medicine and emergency medicine specialist at Northwestern Memorial Hospital in Chicago. And while there is little research out there as to how food can affect your chances of frostbite, ‘a high-calorie, high-protein, well-hydrated diet is a general life principal to lowering your risk [of injury],’ says Jillian Savage, pediatric emergency medicine specialist at Nemours/Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children in Wilmington, Delaware.”

Children should be watched closely for frostbite. As Erin Cooley of Today’s Parent writes, “Kids are more susceptible to frostbite than adults, because they lose heat from their skin faster. Little noses, ears and cheeks are especially vulnerable, since they’re hard to keep covered.”

The elderly, too, are susceptible and should take extra precautions before venturing outdoors. And preexisting conditions can make you more susceptible to frostbite. Medical conditions that can increase your risk factor for frostbite include diabetes, poor circulation and blood flow in limbs, and dehydration.

HOW TO AVOID FROSTBITE

Accuweather.com offers these tips on how to protect yourself from frostbite:

• Avoid being in the cold for extended periods of time
• Be aware of the wind chill
• Wear appropriate layers
• Drink warm fluids, but avoid caffeine and alcohol
• Stay active to maintain body heat
• Take frequent breaks from the cold

Do you put nonstop use of your cellphone ahead of sensible protection in the outdoors? (Photo: Saletomic | Dreamstime.com)

Various experts also advise that you pay attention to headwear; use a hat (preferably of heavy wool and/or windproof) or a headband that fully covers your ears. Mittens are preferable to gloves; they allow your fingers to draw heat from each other. And your socks and sock liners should fit well and provide insulation; brands that “wick moisture” are preferred—wet feet will get colder more quickly.

See also these posts:

• “Frostbite Symptoms: Exposure to the Elements Can Land You in an ER“
• “Hypothermia: Who’s Most at Risk for This Cold-Weather Danger?“
• “Hypothermia Symptoms: An ER Doctor’s Tale of a Patient in Dire Shape“

Originally published in 2018, this post is regularly updated.